Inventive Minds: Inventing Green

About the Inventive Minds Gallery

Inventive Minds is a changing exhibition gallery that introduces Museum visitors to the Lemelson Center’s mission to foster an appreciation for the central role of invention and innovation in the history of the United States. In our ongoing work to document American inventors and increase our understanding of the inventive process, the Lemelson Center works with the Museum's archivists and curators to collect, preserve, and share the historical records of inventors and innovators from all segments of American society.

Through first-person videos, artifacts, and archival materials, visitors to Inventive Minds learn about the traits that successful inventors share—insatiable curiosity, keen problem-solving skills, tenacity, and flexibility in the face of failure—and explore the creative spirit of American invention.

View into Inventive Minds Gallery — *The Inventive Minds: Inventing Green exhibition. © 2016 Smithsonian; photo by Hugh Talman, ET2016-13140*

From September 2016 through August 2017, the gallery features the stories of historic and contemporary inventors whose work on socially-responsible technologies creates profound change for the common good. Click on the links to the right to learn more about Inventive Minds: Inventing Green.

Endangered species

Billiard balls

John Hyatt, Leo Baekeland, and Max Koebner

“An enormous number of elephants are destroyed . . . for the ivory of the tusks. . . . Long before our human story is over the elephant will be numbered with extinct species.” —The People’s Magazine, 1867

*Ivory billiard ball, late 1800s. CL*329507*

Ivory was the preferred material for billiard balls in the 19th century and the search for substitutes, whether motivated by economics or ethics, informed the invention of early plastics. John Wesley Hyatt created a successful business making billiard balls with his invention of Celluloid in 1868. Bakelite, announced by inventor Leo Baekeland in 1909, found many uses, from billiard balls and jewelry to electrical insulators. Vitalite billiard balls, made of a cast resin originally invented in Germany in the 1930s by chemist Max Koebner, were popular during the 1930s–1950s.

*Celluloid billiard ball, 1868. CH*334572*

3 reddish-brown Bakelite billiard balls in a wooden box labeled with Hyatt-Burroughs Billiard Ball Co. name — *Bakelite billiard balls, after 1910. 1981.0976.01*

16 multicolored numbered Vitalite billiard balls in Hyatt Vitalite Pocket Billiard Balls box — *Vitalite billiard balls, about 1935. 2006.0098.0889*

Women workers using polishing lathes during Celluloid billiard ball manufacturing — Celluloid billiard ball manufacture, 1920s. "The balls next go to the polishing lathes illustrated in photograph 75, where they are sanded and polished." From "Manufacture of Celluloid Billiard Balls," Albany Billiard Ball Co. Records, AC0011-0000007

Man using polishing lathe during Celluloid billiard ball manufacture — Celluloid billiard ball manufacture, 1920s. "The manufacture of the celluloid balls is completed by a final polishing with wax in the polishing lathe." From "Manufacture of Celluloid Billiard Balls," Albany Billiard Ball Co. Records, AC0011-0000002

Women workers inspecting Celluloid billiard balls during manufacturing process — *Celluloid billiard ball manufacture, 1920s. Albany Billiard Ball Co. Records, AC0011-0000001*

Man grinding Celluloid billiard balls with water and a fine abrasive during manufacturing process — Celluloid billiard ball manufacture, 1920s. "After their final turning, the balls are ground in a merry-go-round illustrated in photograph 81. The balls are ground by being made to roll in a race between oppositely revolving surfaces in contact with water and fine abrasive." From "Manufacture of Celluloid Billiard Balls," Albany Billiard Ball Co. Records, AC0011-0000004

Woman buffing Celluloid billiard ball during manufacturing process — Celluloid billiard ball manufacture, 1920s. "The manufacture of the synthetic balls is completed by buffing on a special buffing wheel, illustrated in photograph 84, where the final polishing is applied." From "Manufacture of Celluloid Billiard Balls," Albany Billiard Ball Co. Records, AC0011-0000003

Women workers polishing and packing Celluloid billiard balls — *Celluloid billiard ball manufacture, 1920s. Albany Billiard Ball Co. Records, AC0011-0000006*

Energy

Food

Genetically modified organisms

Mannequin wearing a protective jumpsuit and holding a spray canister, both used in the first release of GMOs into the environment in 1987 — *Protective jumpsuit and spray canister, Advanced Genetic Sciences, Inc., 1987. 1987.0770.01–1987.0770.05*

Behind the debates about genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and genetically engineered (GE) crops is a rich history of discovery and experimentation. Although humans have bred plants and animals for centuries, the first authorized release of GMOs into the environment took place in California in 1987. The canister pictured here contained naturally occurring bacteria that had been genetically modified to enhance their frost-fighting ability. Amid protests and extensive monitoring by government agencies, plant pathologist Julie Lindemann put on this suit and sprayed the altered bacteria onto a field of strawberries. The questions raised then about the safety, environmental impact, and potential benefits of GMO/GE crops continue today.

Framed dried petunia plant derived from Monsanto genetically-engineered petunias, 1983 — More than 30 years ago, teams of scientists in university and corporate labs pioneered techniques to alter plant genes. One group at Monsanto experimented with the ancestor of the petunia pictured here. Dried petunia plant derived from Monsanto’s first genetically-engineered petunias, 1983. 2014.3114.01

The fall of 2016 marked the 20-year anniversary of the first large-scale harvest of a genetically engineered food crop—herbicide-tolerant soybeans. To discuss the significance of this milestone, the National Museum of American History and the Lemelson Center convened a panel with two of the scientists who helped start the GE revolution—Mary-Dell Chilton and Robert Fraley. The event was part of the Lemelson Center’s “Innovative Lives” series.

Organic gardening

Richard Adlard

Richard Adlard (1915-1997) had a lifelong interest in agriculture. He grew and sold fruits and vegetables during high school, worked in his university’s greenhouse, and held positions at agricultural agencies. He also spent several months in China as an exchange student in agriculture. He later wrote, “What I had learned of traditional Chinese agriculture was all but forgotten during many years of my working life. In the late 1960s, however, the environmental movement and the growing interest in organic food production recalled them to my mind, and I realized that much of modern organic practice was what I had observed in China under an agricultural system that has been used for 4,000 years.”

A notebook page with 2 photos pasted in. The top image shows a map of China and is captioned "The great agriculture divisions of N. China ... 1929. The lower photo shows 2 people working in a rice paddy. — *Richard Adlard notebook page, "Cultivating a rice paddy," China, 1938. Richard Adlard Collection, 1936-1998, AC0692-0000002*

4 snapshots pasted onto a looseleaf notebook page. Clockwise: Organic material carried from mountain and deposited in new rice paddy; Established terraces; Rice seedlings; Rice terraces. All in Philippines. — *Richard Adlard notebook page, rice paddies and terraces, Philippines, late 1930s. Richard Adlard Collection, 1936-1998, AC0692-0000004*

Snapshot of rows of vegetables pasted onto a looseleaf notebook page, with extended handwritten descriptions and a sketch of methods of planting and Adlard's travel observations. — *Richard Adlard notebook page, "Vegetables," China, late 1930s. Richard Adlard Collection, 1936-1998, AC0692-0000003*

Looseleaf notebook page documenting the manufacture of sedge grass into rope. 2 snapshots pasted onto the page show an Asian woman working at the foot-powered machine that makes rope. Adlard has added his own sketch of the machine at the bottom. — *Richard Adlard notebook page, "Sedge . . . used in the mfg. of rope," China, late 1930s. Richard Adlard Collection, 1936-1998, AC0692-0000005*

Sustainable craft beer brewing

Kim Jordan

Kim Jordan, co-founder and former CEO of New Belgium Brewing Co. in Fort Collins, Colorado, dedicated the brewery to environmental stewardship from its outset.

Materials

David Stone

Concrete is used in the construction of buildings, roads, bridges, sidewalks, and more. But making all of the cement that is used as the binder in concrete is not only incredibly energy-intensive but the process also releases billions of tons of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere each year. What if someone could change that by incorporating recycled materials and making it not just carbon neutral but carbon negative, meaning that it absorbs more CO2 than was used in its production? That's exactly what Tucson-based inventor David Stone is doing with his invention called Ferrock.

One of the materials that Stone incorporates into Ferrock is waste steel dust, which is currently not recycled and is available at no cost. Another ingredient is recycled glass. Stone has been working with Richard Pablo, a member of the Tohono O’odham Nation, to collect discarded bottles from drinking sites on the reservation. “Cleaning the desert and picking up those bottles, it kind of gave me an energy, a positive outlook,” Pablo recalls. The bottles are run through a glass crusher and become part of the aggregate used to make Ferrock.

“The glass cullet and the steel dust,” Stone explains, “are mixed with minor ingredients that promote iron corrosion (rusting) and carbonate formation. Then water is added to make a wet paste that is similar in consistency to ordinary concrete. It can be poured and troweled like concrete to make the same kind of products. Finally, we expose the mix to carbon dioxide gas, which diffuses into it and reacts with iron to form iron carbonate. This mineral keeps growing for about a week into a solid matrix that binds all the glass together. The result is a hard, durable material that is as strong as concrete but greener because it is truly carbon negative and is composed almost completely of recycled wastes.”

A small red bowl filled with pellets of crushed glass — *Crushed glass used in making Ferrock. Much of the glass is gathered by the Tohono O'odham community to clean up drinking sites. © 2017 Smithsonian Institution; photo by Chris Gauthier*

“Through this project,” Stone reports, “we have transformed the discarded bottles into a green building material that in turn has been used to make a variety of products including tiles, pavers, and blocks as well as bigger structures such as benches, sidewalks, slabs, and walls.” Stone pledges, “When the time comes and the world wants to build with new materials that are carbon-neutral or carbon-negative, I will be able to step forward and say, yes, I have such a material.”

Facade of the Tohono Oodham Community College, brightly painted with Native American symbols — The Tohono O'odham Community College, where David Stone has his workshop and collaborates with Richard Pablo and other members of the Tohono O'odham Nation, May 2017. © 2017 Smithsonian Institution; photo by Joyce Bedi

John Warner

In 1998, John Warner and Paul Anastas published the ground-breaking book, Green Chemistry: Theory and Practice. The road to this achievement was not linear for Warner. Growing up in a blue-collar family in Quincy, Massachusetts, he originally saw himself as a musician and went to college to study music. But it all changed when he saw what could be invented in a chemistry lab.

Completing advanced degrees in chemistry, Warner went to work at Polaroid and was headed for a successful career in industry. Then personal tragedy struck when a birth defect claimed the life of his young son. Unsettled by the thought that his work as a chemist might have been connected to his son’s birth defect, Warner realized that, in all of his studies, he had never been taught about the dangers of toxic chemicals for people and the environment.

Warner left Polaroid and set out to change the way chemistry is taught in universities across the country. And in 2007, he founded the Warner Babcock Institute for Green Chemistry as an invention factory to create technologies and processes that are functional, cost-effective, and environmentally benign.

Learn more about the 12 principles of green chemistry . . .

Transportation

Maglev train

Emile Bachelet

Emile Bachelet (1863-1946) immigrated to the United States from France in the 1880s. An adept electrician as well as an inventor, Bachelet earned several patents in the early 1900s for electromagnetic therapeutic devices. Around 1910, he applied his knowledge of electromagnetism to inventing a magnetic levitation train, or maglev. He claimed that his “flying train” would be fast, clean, and safe. But maglev trains consume a lot of electricity and require specially built tracks—two significant infrastructure and economic obstacles to their widespread adoption.

Emile Bachelet demonstrating his maglev train prototype to a group of people in London, 1914 — *Emile Bachelet demonstrating his maglev train prototype in London, 1914. Emile Bachelet Collection, AC0302-0000008*

Winston Churchill (center right) was one of the guests at Bachelet's maglev demonstration, 1914 — *Winston Churchill (center right) attended Bachelet's demonstration of his maglev prototype in London, 1914. Emile Bachelet Collection, AC0302-0000026*

Let Us Levitate! cartoon, with joking suggestions for other uses of electromagnetic levitation, 1914 — *“Let Us Levitate!” cartoon, with joking suggestions for other uses of electromagnetic levitation,* The Bystander, London, 27 May 1914. Emile Bachelet Collection, AC0302-0000027

Cover of The Bachelet Levitated System booklet — The Bachelet Levitated System booklet. Emile Bachelet Collection, AC0302-0000025

EV1 electric car

Paul MacCready

In addition to designing human- and solar-powered aircraft, Paul MacCready (1925–2007) also invented new kinds of electric cars in collaboration with General Motors. MacCready and his company AeroVironment created the GM Sunraycer, a solar-powered car that won a race across the Australian Outback in 1987. Their next project was prototyping an all-electric car for everyday use. The result was the proof-of-concept GM Impact, which made its public debut in 1990. "It helped change people's perceptions about how we can do more with less," MacCready said.

The experience gained from the Impact was put to use in developing GM’s EV1, the first modern all-electric car for the consumer market. Introduced in 1996, the EV1’s aerodynamic shape and advanced power systems made the new car practical, energy efficient, and appealing to consumers. But in 2003 GM abruptly canceled the EV1 program, citing high production costs and a small market. Citizen protests over the EV1’s termination joined a national discussion about the promise of reducing air pollution and dependence on oil with electric cars.

*General Motors Impact electric car fact sheet, 1994, front. General Motors EV1 Records, AC0912-0000006-01*

General Motors Impact electric car fact sheet, 1994, back. Includes information on dimensions, special features, and modifications — *General Motors Impact electric car fact sheet, 1994, back. General Motors EV1 Records, AC0912-0000006-02*

Cover of Daniel and His Electric Car children’s book, 1998. Cartoon image of Mom, Dad, and Daniel charging the EV1. — Daniel and His Electric Car *children’s book by Ann Hegnauer, 1998. General Motors EV1 Records, AC0912-0000009*

Folded brochure for General Motors EV1 electric car frequently asked questions, 1998 — *General Motors EV1 electric car frequently asked questions, 1998. General Motors EV1 Records, AC0912-0000007-02*

EV1 prototype under assembly, 1994. A partial chassis is in the foreground with a car having its outer body assembled is in the mid-ground. — *EV1 prototype under assembly, 1994. General Motors EV1 Records, AC0912-0000011*

EV1 product card showing a red car parked on a wide lawn, 1996 — *EV1 product card, 1996. General Motors EV1 Records, AC0912-0000005-01*

Cover of General Motors Plugged In magazine for children, 1997, showing EV1 — *General Motors* Plugged In magazine for children, 1997. General Motors EV1 Records, AC0912-0000008

EV1 cutaway diagram, 1996, with car parts labeled — *EV1 cutaway diagram, 1996. General Motors EV1 Records, AC0912-0000001*

Water

19th century innovations in water purification

Loomis Improved Filter brochure, about 1895, with engraving of the filter and the tag line, The Only Filter that Can Perfectly Cleanse Itself — *Loomis Improved Filter brochure, Loomis-Manning Filter Co., Philadelphia, about 1895. Warshaw Collection of Business Americana, AC0060-0003099*

“How to get rid of the sewage and sickening and nauseous filth which is pouring its deadly stream of corruption, loaded down with disease germs, into our drinking water, is the grave subject which is absorbing the attention of the health boards and commissions of the world.”

These words, from the Loomis-Manning Filter Co., reflected how population growth and industrialization, especially in and around cities, became increasingly connected to concerns about water quality. The Loomis equipment cleaned water for entire buildings by passing it through a series of filters and screens. The Ralston and Sanitary “stills” were stovetop devices for the home that distilled water by boiling to eliminate contaminants.

Cover of Ralston New Process Water-Still brochure, about 1900, promoting the need for clean drinking water for everyone — *Ralston New Process Water-Still brochure, A. R. Bailey Manufacturing Co., New York, about 1900. Warshaw Collection of Business Americana, AC0060-0003100*

Sanitary Still brochure, about 1900, showing young woman adding water to the stovetop still and drawing clean water from the spigot at the bottom of the still — *Sanitary Still brochure, Cuprigraph Co., Chicago, about 1900. Warshaw Collection of Business Americana, AC0060-0003101*

Wadsworth Mount

At different points in his life, Wadsworth Mount (1907–1985) worked on Wall Street, ran the family woodworking business, had a job with a printer, and designed an antiaircraft weapon during World War II. He then settled into a career as an independent inventor—and his inventions were as varied as his resume, ranging from children’s toys to hardware for sailboats. He patented the solar-powered water distiller illustrated here in the 1960s. He built his prototype at home with commercially available ice chests. Heat from sunlight shining through a piece of glass covering the cooler evaporated the water inside. The purified water vapor would then be collected as it condensed on the glass cover.

Mount's sketch of water distiller unit, 1969, with label for Sears ice chest pasted onto page — *Sketch of water distiller unit, 1969. Wadsworth W. Mount Papers, AC0352-0000004-02*

Typewritten letter seeking inexpensive polystyrene containers for units, 1969 — *Letter sourcing materials for units, 1969. Wadsworth W. Mount Papers, AC0352-0000007-02*

5 photos of Wadsworth Mount posing outdoors with test units — *Wadsworth Mount with test units. Wadsworth W. Mount Papers, AC0352-0000008*

*Promotional brochure for Mount solar water purification apparatus. Wadsworth W. Mount Papers, AC0352-0000002-02*

Theresa Dankovich

Theresa Dankovich invented germ-killing water filters as a graduate student and co-founded her company Folia Water in 2016 to scale up production. Folia Filters (patent pending) are made of thick paper embedded with silver nanoparticles, which are lethal to microbes. The filters are distributed in Safe Water Books—each book provides a year of safe drinking water for a family. Dankovich’s team has field tested her inexpensive filters with users in South Africa, Ghana, Honduras, Bangladesh, Kenya, and Haiti. “I saw an opportunity to simply listen to the people . . . and to deliver designs that fit with the culture,” she notes.

Blue Tasita” filter holder lying on its side, with filter paper installed — *“Tasita” filter holder, with filter paper installed, gift of Folia Water*

A woman in her kitchen in South Africa pouring water through Folia Water filter, 2016 — *A woman in South Africa using Folia Water filter, 2016. Photo courtesy Folia Water.*

Filter papers bound together for distribution in a Safe Water Book — *“Safe Water Book” of filter papers, gift of Folia Water*

Kid-powered toys

Jerome Lemelson

Jerome Lemelson (1923–1997) received more than 600 patents for inventions in many fields. About 10% of those patents are for toys. The examples seen here share a common "green" trait: batteries were not included—or needed!